Question
1. Above what altitude is VFR flight prohibited? What is required above this altitude.
Answer
1. 91.135 Positive control areas and route segments. (Above 18,000')
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, no person may operate an aircraft within a positive control area or a positive control route segment designated in part 71 of this chapter unless the aircraft is -
(1) Operated under IFR at a specific flight level assigned by ATC;
(2) Equipped with instruments and equipment required for IFR operations;
91.205 (b)Visual flight rules (day). For VFR flight during the day, the following instruments and equipment are required:
(1) Airspeed indicator.
(2) Altimeter
(3) Magnetic direction indicator
(4) Tachometer for each engine.
(5) Oil pressure gauge for each engine...
(7) Oil temperature gauge for each air cooled engine.
(8) Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine.
(9) Fuel gauge indicating the quantity of fuel in each tank.
(10) Landing gear position indicator...
(12) ...an approved safety belt with approved metal-to metal-latching device for each occupant 2 years of age or older.
(13)...an approved shoulder harness for each front seat....
(14) An emergency locator transmitter, if required by .91.207
(c) Visual flight rules (night). floor VFR flight at night, the following instruments and equipment are required:
(1) Instruments and equipment specified in paragraph (b) of this section
(2) Approved position lights
(3) An approved aviation red or aviation white anti-collision lights
(5) An adequate source of electrical energy for all installed electrical and radio equipment
(6) One spare set of fuses, or three spare fuses of each kind required, that are accessible to the pilot in flight.
(d) Instrument flight rules. For IFR flight, the following instruments and equipment are required:
(1) Instruments and equipment specified in paragraph
(b) of this section, and, for night flight, instruments and equipment specified in paragraph (c) of this section.
(2) Two-way radio communications system and navigation equipment appropriate to the ground facilities to be used.
(3) Gyroscopic rate of turn indicator...
(4) Slip/skid indicator
(5) Sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure.
(6) A clock displaying hours, minutes, and seconds...
(7) Generator or alternator of adequate capacity
(8) Gyroscopic pitch and bank indicator...
(9) Gyroscopic direction indicator...
(e) Flight at and above 24,000' MSL....equipped with approved DME..
(3) Flown by a pilot rated for instrument flight; and
(4) Equipped, when in a positive control area, with -
(i) The applicable equipment specified in Sec. 91.215
( 91.215 ATC transponder and altitude reporting equipment and use.
(b) (1) All aircraft. In Class A and Class B airspace...
(ii) A radio providing direct pilot/controller communication on the frequency specified by ATC for the area concerned....
(b) ...ATC may authorize deviation on a continuing basis or for an individual flight, as appropriate.
Question
1. What items of information must preflight include as listed in FAR 91.103,
Answer
1. 91.103 Each pilot in command shall, before beginning a flight, become familiar with all available information concerning that flight. This information must include -
(a) ...a flight not in the vicinity of an airport, weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be competed, and any known traffic delays of which the pilot in command has been advised by ATC;
(b) For any flight, runway lengths at airports of intended use, and the following takeoff and landing distance information:
(1) For civil aircraft for which an approved airplane...Flight Manual containing takeoff and landing distance data is requires, the takeoff and landing distance data contained therein; and
(2) For civil aircraft other than those specified in paragraph (b) (1) of this section, other reliable information appropriate to the aircraft, relating to aircraft performance under expected values of airport elevation and runway slope, aircraft gross weight, and wind and temperature.
AIM 5-1-2, FOLLOW IFR PROCEDURES EVEN WHEN OPERATING VFR
a. to maintain IFR proficiency, pilots are urged to practice IFR procedures whenever possible, even when operating VFR. Some suggested practices include:
1. Obtain a complete preflight and weather briefing. Check the NOTAMS.
2, File a flight plan. This is an excellent low cost insurance policy. The cost is the time it takes to fill it out. The insurance includes the knowledge that someone will be looking for you if you become overdue at your destination.
3. Use current charts.
4. Use the navigation aids. Practice maintaining a good course-keep the needle centered.
5. Maintain a constant altitude which is appropriate for the direction of flight.
6. Estimate en route position times.
7. Make accurate and frequent position reports to the FSS's along your route of flight...
AIM 7-1-6. CATEGORICAL OUTLOOKS
a. Categorical outlook terms describing general ceiling and visibility conditions for advanced planning purposes, are defined as follows:
1. LIFR (Low IFR--Ceiling less than 500 feet and/or visibility less than a mile.
2. IFR--Ceiling 500 to less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility 1 to less than 3 miles.
3. MVFR (Marginal VFR)--Ceiling 1,000 to 3,000 feet and/or visibility 3 to 5 miles inclusive.
4. VFR--Ceiling greater than 3,000 feet and visibility greater than 5 miles; includes sky clear.
b. the cause of LIFR, IFR, or MVFR is indicated by either ceiling or visibility restrictions or both. the contraction "CIG" and/or weather and obstructions to vision symbols are used. If winds or gusts of 25 knots or greater are forecast for the outlook period, the word "WIND" is also includes for all categories including VFR.
Question
1. What is the normal traffic direction at uncontrolled airports? What indicators are used to denote an irregular traffic direction? 91.127 AIM
Answer
1. Far 91.127; Operating on or in the vicinity of an airport: General rules
(a) Unless otherwise required by part 93 of this chapter, each person operating an aircraft on or in the vicinity of an airport shall comply with the requirements of this section and, if applicable, of Sec. 91.129
(b) Each person operating an aircraft to or from an airport without an operating control tower shall -
(1) In the case of an airplane approaching to land, make all turns of that airplane to the left unless the airport displays approved light signals or visual markings indicating that turns should be made to the right, in which case the pilot shall make all turns to the right;
TRAFFIC ADVISORY PRACTICES AT AIRPORTS WITHOUT OPERATING CONTROL TOWERS
a. Airport Operations Without Operating Control Tower
1. There is no substitute for alertness while in the vicinity of an airport. It is essential that pilots be alert and look for other traffic and exchange traffic information when approaching or departing an airport without an operating control tower. This is of particular importance since other aircraft may not have communication capability.
b. Communicating on a Common Frequency.
1. The key to communicating at an airport without an operating control tower is selection of the correct common frequency. the acronym CTAF which stands for Common Traffic Advisory Frequency, is synonymous with this program. A CTAF is a frequency designated for the purpose of carrying out airport advisory practices while operating to or from an airport without an operating control tower. The CTAF may be a UNICOM, MULTICOM, FSS, or tower frequency and is identified in appropriate aeronautical publications.
2. The CTAF frequency for a particular airport is contained in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD etc...)Also, the CTAF frequency can be obtained by contacting any FSS. Use the appropriate CTAF, combined with a visual alertness and application of recommended good operating practices, will enhance safety of flight into and out of all uncontrolled airports.
c. Recommended Traffic Advisory Practices.
1. Pilots of inbound traffic should monitor and communicate as appropriate on the designated CTAF from 10 miles to landing. Pilots of departing aircraft should monitor/communicate on the appropriate frequency from start-up, during taxi, and until 10 miles from the airport unless the FARs or local procedures require otherwise.
2. Pilots of aircraft conducting other than arriving or departing operations at altitudes normally used by arriving and departing aircraft should monitory/communicate on the appropriate frequency while within 10 miles of the airport unless required to do otherwise by the FAR's or local procedures. Such operations include parachute jumping/dropping, etc.
d. Airport Advisory Service Provided by an FSS.
1. Airport Advisory Service (AAS) is a service provided by an FSS physically located on an airport which does not have a control tower or where the tower is operated on a part-time basis. The CTAF for FSSs which provide this service will be disseminated in appropriate aeronautical publications. (123.6 at FSS only fields; usually tower frequency at FSS/tower fields)
AIM 4-52 VISUAL INDICATORS AT UNCONTROLLED AIRPORTS
a. At those airports without an operating control tower, a segmented circle visual indicator system, if installed, is designed to provide traffic pattern information. The segmented circle system consists of the following components:
1. The segmented circle--Located in a position affording maximum visibility to pilots in the air and on the ground and providing a centralized location for other elements of the system.
2. The wind direction indicator--A wind cone, wind sock, or wind tee installed near the operational runway to indicate wind direction, The large end of the wind cone/wind sock points into the wind as does the large end (cross bar) of the wind tee. In lieu of a tetrahedron and where a wind sock or wind cone is collocated with a wind tee, the wind tee may be manually aligned with the runway in use to indicate landing direction. These signaling devices may be located in the center of the segmented circle and may be lighted for night use. Pilots are cautioned against using a tetrahedron to indicate wind direction.
3. The landing direction indicator--A tetrahedron is installed when conditions at the airport warrant its use. It may be used to indicate the direction of landings and takeoffs. A Tetrahedron may be located at the center of a segmented circle and may be lighted for night operations. The small end of the tetrahedron points in the direction of landing. Pilots are cautioned against using the tetrahedron for any purpose other than as an indicator of landing direction. Further, pilots should use extreme caution when making runway selection by use of a tetrahedron in very light or calm wind conditions as the tetrahedron may not be aligned with the designated calm-wind runway. At airports with control towers, the tetrahedron is should only be referenced with the control tower is not in operation. Tower instructions supersede tetrahedron indications.
4. Landing strip indicators--Installed in pairs...and used to show the alignment of landing strips (runways)
5. Traffic pattern indicators--Arranged in pairs in conjunction with landing strip indicators and used to indicate the direction of turns when there is a variation from the normal left traffic pattern. (If there is not segmented circle installed at the airport, traffic pattern indicators may be installed on or near the end of the runway.)
b. Preparatory to landing at an airport without a control tower, or when the control tower is not in operation, the pilot should concern himself with the indicator for the approach end of the runway to be used. When approaching for landing, all turns must be made to the left unless a traffic pattern indicator indicates that turns should be made to the right. If the pilot will mentally enlarge the indicator for the runway to be used, the base and final approach legs of the traffic pattern to be flown immediately become apparent. Similar treatment of the indicator at the departure end of the runway will clearly indicate the direction of turn after takeoff.
c. when two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right of way, but it shall not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another which is on final approach to land, or to overtake that aircraft (FAR 91.113(f)).
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