Post-script
Pilot called in early 2000 and asked that I take him through the IFR certificate. No IFR aircraft available to me. My flying club had limited membership so that he would have had a five year wait to join. No FBOs locally were interested in having me teach in their aircraft. Had to turn him down.
Using Global Position System (GPS)
The accuracy of GPS is unsurpassed. It is the programming of the system by the pilot that poses potential problems and dangers. The system software is relatively complex to program. This is especially true for the computer illiterate. GPS will replace all ground based navigational systems and LORAN. The latest improvement to GPS is a wide-area augmentation system (WAAS). IFR approaches will be possible to any airport with accuracy within seven meters.
The Navstar GPS is a constellation of orbiting satellites (24 + 2 reserve) providing navigational data to military and civilian users around the world. Provides 24-hour services. These include accurate three-dimensional (latitude, longitude, and altitude) velocity and precise time, passive all-weather operations; continuous real-time information; support to an unlimited number of users and areas; and support to civilian users at a slightly less accurate level. The signals are so accurate that time can be figured to within one-millionth of a second, velocity within a fraction of a mile per hour, and location to within a few feet.
GPS as used by civil aviation has a built in inaccuracy to prevent bad-guys from targeting the U. S. Civil limits are about 60 feet as compared to within one foot for the military. Military signals are accurate so that time can be computed within one-millionth of a second, velocity within a fraction of a mile. This variation of accuracy is called 'selective availability (SA). Groundspeed error in a hand-held GPS will be less than two knots. With SA off the error is less than one knot. The system has 24 satellites circling at 7500 knots at 10,898 nautical miles high. They complete an orbit every 12 hours while continuously transmitting their position. They are line of sight but each satellite can see 40% of the earth. When a GPS receiver locks on four satellites a multi-dimensional fix is possible. GPS satellites get new data every hour. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) checks the minimum signals required for a fix.
The military has the capability of distorting the GPS signal to prevent use of the system against the U. S. When distorted, the signal would not be useable for navigation. The FAA has contracted for 35 ground based wide-area augmentation system (WAAS) to improve error detection, 7 meters accuracy and availability. By the year 2010 GPS will be the only aircraft navigation system.
GPS is going to change the way instrument navigation and approach are flown. Every runway can have a straight in approach. Alternate arrivals will be easily possible. There is no VOR cone of confusion or DME slant range errors. The course deviation indicator (CDI) can be programmed for scaled deviation according to use for navigation, non-precision, or precision use. GPS can be used to confirm information from heading indicator, altimeter, airspeed indicator, VOR, ADF or DME. During airport arrivals or approaches the GPS can even show the runways. You can fly a serpentine river with a properly programmed GPS.
In October of 1994, Stanford research showed that a small and inexpensive addition to the surface of any runway and to the aircraft could allow accurate landings at any airport and any runway. Accuracy was to within one inch of location and altitude. It was tested with 110 landings. A processor on the plane compares GPS signals to those of the runway transmitter to give relative runway position. Aircraft instrumentation remains the same in function and appearance. In 1995 Category 3 level instrument approaches have been flown using differential GPS systems. This requires a local ground-based GPS antenna that allows correction of GPS errors. The accuracy of the differential system is within one foot.
The moving map indication makes situational awareness less of a problem since the active waypoint, the track and next waypoint can be mapped as well as altitude minimums. How well any of this can be done depends on the installed database. We are well on the way to a paperless cockpit.
I recently flew from OAK to YUM non-stop. This is a straight line distance of 485 nautical miles. I had forecast 3t tail winds for the route at 9,500'. Under non-GPS conditions I have always stopped at BFL for fuel. This time I made BFL in 1.5 hours and my GPS said that I could make YUM with VFR reserves. For the remainder of the flight the GPS kept me advised of ETE so that I could manage my fuel in case tail winds did not continue.
I would recommend that a handheld GPS be considered in preference to Panel installed. In the event of total electrical system failure or emergency landing in an isolated area, the handheld GPS can become a very useful aid. A recent 1994 development allows the placement of a GPS transmitter on the runway surface that will allow precision landings regardless of aircraft type.
If your aircraft has GPS or LORAN you will be expected to be able to use it for navigation and emergency purposes. You should be able to get time, speed and distance information. The student should be trained in programming, and storing flight plans, waypoints and direct operations. Later skills in airport information, nearest-airport, airspace, malfunction, and emergency use should be covered. Additionally you will be expected to be able to navigate without GPS by using other traditional aids. This means a student must be competent in the use of the sectional, VOR, E6B, and approximate headings as required by the Practical Test Standards. Special emphasis should be make regarding pilotage, since GPS and other aids tend to reduce skilled and practiced usage of surface orientation.
LORAN
The LOng RAnge Navigation system was developed during All airline pilot training, commercial pilot training, air force pilot training, fighter pilot training, pilot training schools, flight training schools, flight attendant training, helicopter flight training, accelerated flight training, airline flight training, flight training florida, flight attendant training schools, instrument flight training, cpl flight flying school training training, flight training simulator, flight training academy, atp flight training, helicopter flight training schools, california flight training, professional flight training, data flight training, orlando flight training, corporate flight attendant training, flight nurse training, warrant officer flight training, flight training device, lufthansa flight training, flight training san diego, alien alien flight flight training, military pilot training, sport pilot training and private pilot training.
The oscilloscope screen was about four inches in diameter and would display a station master and associated slave signal from about 1500 miles over water and 600 miles over land. Once the two signals were received and aligned a timing circuit could be displayed to measure the micro-second difference between reception of the two signals. A LORAN chart of the area had numbered parabolic lines which mapped out the lines of position for each time difference between the two stations.
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