Situational Awareness
No matter how you determine your holding procedure, your knowledge of where you are in relationship to the fix, the holding pattern, your arrival and departure routes are essential givens. The perceptual key to successful holding is to remain oriented. Don't even think about orientation until you are headed toward the fix or on an intercept to one of its legs.
Each of the three types of holds have certain characteristics as to entry, number and direction of turns, NAV/OBS hanges, and orientation difficulties. The better they are understood the better you will stay oriented. The different kinds of holding fixes, the multiplicity of holds, the variations of instructions all contribute to the orientation problem. Since intersections are seldom at right angles (90 degrees) some eyeballing of the holds and turns will be required in actual practice. The airspace allotted for holding takes into account a considerable amount of pilot error.
If you must... ALWAYS-ALWAYS DRAW THE INBOUND SIDE AND HEADING FIRST when drawing any holding pattern. Doing this will at least improve the chance of getting the turn direction correct. As you go through the following study process first do the drawing. Get away from the drawing as soon as you are able. It is essential that you be able to mentally visualize any hold from an oral description consisting of only a fix name, a direction and the turn direction. i.e." Hold at RAGGE, south in left turns." or "Hold southeast at SNUPPY." When no direction for the turns is given 'standard' is right turns.
Wind
A requirement for any holding entry is that the pilot be able to make some predetermination of wind direction and velocity. Your best insight will be your own in flight calculation of the wind. Do all you can to get the wind direction and velocity while you are flying to the fix. Your second best insight will be the FSS forecasts for your altitude.
Once you know the wind, triple your wind correction on the outbound legs for at least one minute of that leg. (As of January 6, 1995, the AIM uses the word 'triple' instead of double.) This is a DR skill. Wind correcting headings are used on both the outbound (double the outbound) and inbound to fix courses. Wind correcting times are also used on the outbound headings to establish one minute inbound legs.
Course is the line you are trying to fly, heading is where the nose points in order to fly the course line. Course and heading are the same only when there is no crosswind. Since the holding side is "protected" airspace considerable allowance is made while the pilot tries to sort out the wind effect. Three times around should get the pattern into pretty good shape.
Getting Reciprocals
At this point is important for you, the pilot, to know how to get your reciprocals quickly and accurately. It is wise to memorize the eight cardinal headings and their reciprocals. The difficulty of adding or subtracting 180 can be overcome by several methods. Always say course, headings, bearings, or radials as consisting of three digits. You should have started this way as a student pilot.
Easy way #1
Just set the original number at the bottom of the OBS dial.
Easier way #2
Add 200 subtract 20/subtract 200 add 20.
Since you need to either add or subtract 180 degrees To a number less than 180 add two hundred and subtract twenty i.e. 045 + 200 = 245 - 20 = 225 To a number more than 180 subtract 200 and add twenty. i.e. 266 - 200 = 66 + 20 = 086
Easiest way #3
Since every number on the compass consists of 3 digits, just add or subtract two from the first two digits. The third digit remains the same. Course = 0 4 5 Course 2 2 5
+2-2__ -2+2__
becomes 2 2 5 0 4 5
Easiest: Take two from first digit and add it to second digit; take two from second digit and add to first digit.
Another way: The last digit of reciprocals always remains the same. The middle number always increases or decreases by eight. There are only four different initial digits. First write down the last digit. To find the first digit you must know how the numbers on opposite quadrants of the compass rose change. The first digit threes are in the opposite quadrant from the ones. The zeros are opposite the twos. It works but might not be that easy under pressure.
Knowing the sum of the digits for all 90, 180, and 270 points from a given heading are equal. For example, 135 degrees adding the digits equals 9. The 180 degree reciprocal is 315 which also equals 9. The 90/270 degrees are 225 and 045 and the sums of the digits equal 9. This will work for any compass points including 45 degree intervals, 22.5 degree intervals and 11.25 degree intervals. Occasionally, during a turn you may have failed to determine a 90 or 180 degree heading point. The above sum of the digits knowledge may save the turn. Likewise, you can just reference the initial heading in an appropriate 90 or 180 position on the HI.
Mark all published holding patterns on plates and area charts with a diagonal line having arrows and numbers for headings in both directions.
Highlight important frequencies, directions, times, and altitudes. Be aware that once you have learned the ‘approved’ FAA method and obtained your certificate you may want to use only the ‘course reversal’ method explained later.
NDB Holding
A holding fix at an NDB or equivalent is usually flown direct to the NDB using the ADF. If a specific bearing for arrival at the NDB fix is given then an intercept procedure is required. Flight using the ADF requires that very accurate headings be flown. An accurate heading makes it possible to determine the effect of any wind. Flight into a crosswind will be tracking accurately on course if the heading is constant while the needle likewise remains constant even though not on '0'. Loran and GPS makes tracking so easy that the FAA will not allow it.
In many respects holding with an ADF is easier than with a VOR fix of any kind. With the ADF you always know where the fix is. You can always fly right to the fix even if by a circuitous route due to winds. Once at the fix you determine the bearing on which ATC has determined the holding direction and if non-standard turns. No mental reversals of inbound/outbound courses are required. No frequency changes. Just get there and do it.
Entries
Diagramming the eight possible patterns around a fix is beyond my computer ability. I suggest that you do so on a sheet of paper. By numbering from the top from one to eight you will get #8 and #1 on the top
Using a clockwise eight count for each pattern from 12 o’clock we find that only #4 and #5 give you instant inbound entry into the pattern. #1 and #8 require that you turn to depart the fix at a 30 degree angle from the outbound direction for one minute before tracking back to the fix. #3 and #6 allow you to track outbound on the inbound bearing before turning back to the fix through the holding pattern. #2 and #7 Require that you fly outbound on a heading until the ADF needle point tracks to the 30 degree point. This should take one minute.
Once you have tracked back to the fix you are established in the hold and should begin turns in the assigned direction. Your outbound leg is made on a heading designed to correct for the wind as guessimated or forecast. The preferred procedure is to determine the inbound correction required. Once the inbound correction has been approximated be sure to triple the angle of correction of correction on the outbound leg. (As of January 6, 1995, the AIM uses the word 'triple' instead of double.) This will make the holding pattern egg shaped as required by the wind.
One of the beauties of the ADF is that it is relatively easy to determine when to begin timing the outbound leg. When the Fix is at the 90 degree point, left or right, start your time. In no wind conditions the needle will be at the 30 degree rear position at the completion of the one minute outbound leg. The + effect of the wind will change the angle slightly as well as the outbound time required to set the inbound leg time to one minute.
Fly a NDB holding pattern in calm conditions and note how the needle will be at 90/270 as when to begin timing the outbound course. Note how needle will tract to your rear, left or right, 30 degree position when you have reached your time for beginning your inbound turn. Next try this on a windy day and note how the needle is not nearly as much help in either determining your timing points or wind correction angle.
NDB Holding Simplified
In the "real world" bearings are seldom flown exactly. If the NDB can be located on a LORAN or GPS such flight is very easy. (Flying an NDB approach to an airport becomes a very accurate affair if the airport location is put into the LORAN or GPS.)
When holding at NDB the first inbound turn is flown direct to the NDB. The heading required to fly direct gives some indication of wind correction required. Make a guess as to the amount of wind correction required. Triple this correction angle into the wind on the outbound leg. When you come out of the turn to your inbound heading if the ADF needle is '0' then your wind correction is correct. Change your inbound heading to correct for the wind again. Make any fine adjustment required. Repeat the procedure as necessary to correct for wind and time.
FAF Using NDB
Identify fixes using an NDB bearing is a check-ride Catch 22. There are FAFs that use a wing tip bearing for identification.
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