The System:
The FAA-ATC radio system has several types of facilities that require subtle differences in use of the radio. Radio procedures are different for tower controlled airports than for other ATC facilities. There are even selective differences between similar airports due to historic preferences or operational requirements. The better you understand why they do what they do the better you will understand the importance of correct radio procedures.

Tower Operations:
The tower controller is known as local control. He is responsible for the active runways, inbound and outbound traffic inside the airport airspace. Ground control is responsible for all airport movement area traffic. This includes cars, trucks, and airplanes on taxiways, some ramps, and inactive runways. Ground coordinates the crossing of active runways with the local controller. The flight data position does such things as getting IFR clearances, making the ATIS, and coordination with approach control. At some airports in very light traffic conditions one person may work all positions.

A supervisor is in watchful command of the total shift operation. He has great flexibility in rotating the positions to maintain efficiency. Each controller goes though initial training in Oklahoma City. He then works in the facility at each position until certified in that position. The local controller (tower) is playing three-dimensional chess with aircraft of different categories and types. These planes are arriving from different direction, at different speeds, with varying levels of pilot competence. The ATC mandate is to provide safe, orderly, and expeditious movement of traffic. Pilot competence is vital if ATC is to do its job well. The first clue the controller has of pilot competence is the way the radio is used by the pilot. The best way to learn how the system works is to make a practice of visiting towers at every opportunity. When you know what the controllers are doing and why, you can use both the radio and the flight path to make things work better.

Class C and B Airspace
Over 100 U. S cities have a magenta area designated as Class C airspace. Radar service is available but not mandatory. You must establish contact and maintain a listening watch but you can refuse the service. (not smart). Major cities have Class B airspace. Students are not allowed into Class B airspace without an instructors endorsement as to training and proficiency.

An flight entering a radar service area requires that the pilot plan for the communications involved. Get any required ATIS before making contact with approach. Know exactly where you are going to be before making contact. You can be violated by the FAA for an accidental entry into both Class C and B airspace. The pilot is responsible for the 'see and avoid' mandate and should not place undue reliance on radar advisories.

A radar target not in ATC contact has altitude that is only 'indicated' not confirmed. Traffic advisories are a part of radar services which includes weather advisories, terrain, obstruction, and low altitude alerts. Should you ask for flight following instead of traffic advisories you may not get the rest of the services. It is better and wiser to get all the help you can. Advisory service is available to VFR pilots only when the workload permits.

Terminal Area (Norcal Approach)
Basic separation within 40 miles of single antenna is three miles in airport/terminal airspace. IFR/VFR separation is 1.5-miles in Class B. Beyond 40 miles of antenna it is 5 miles.

The pilot should know that under VFR conditions once you have told ATC that you have visual contact with traffic you may not receive any further radar advisories on that traffic. They may not advise you again of altitude or direction. It is up to you to evade any possible wake turbulence. ATC will let you fly right under a DC-10' wake turbulence and not issue a warning. You must be aware of this lack of protection and be assertive enough to make a 360 or whatever it takes for avoidance. It may be best not to 'see' traffic

Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC) (Norcal Approach)
5 miles is the minimum for IFR. Several antenna returns are displayed as one. Center antennae are connected by land line radio systems and parabolic relays spaced about 17 miles apart. ZOA, which is Oakland center, covers an area from the middle of Nevada down to Bakersfield, along the coastal waters of California up to the Oregon Border.

Center operations are separated from TRACON services by distance and altitude. Center services will not be made available unless you have sufficient altitude to give both a radar return and radio communications.

Radar Identification
--Contact and identity established by 1-mile or runway is 'contact".
--Radar return at specific reported position is 'contact'.
--Radar vectors may be used to identify and establish 'contact'
--Transponder codes are used. Mode C gives altitude that must be validated by each successive controller.
Data Block
The computerized radar is capable of showing the aircraft route, a conflict with another aircraft, range and bearing from any fix, and a minimum safe altitude warning.

FSS Procedures
The FSS may have up to 12 radios operating from one switch panel. It is necessary for the pilot to know the differing dedicated frequencies and how to obtain them. The emergency 121.5 and FSS universal 122.2 frequencies do not usually appear on charts or other sources. You, the pilot, are expected to know that these are common to Flight Service Stations. If a frequency for an FSS is followed by an R, it means that the FSS can only receive; if a frequency is followed by a T, it means that the FSS can only transmit on that frequency. Since some of the frequencies may be far beyond the line of sight requirement it is important to be careful in making your frequency selection.

Failure to mention the frequency you are listening on may require an additional callup. You always save time in communications by doing it right the first time. Your initial communication should include the words, "………listening on (Frequency)". You can improve your FSS communications comfort level by making PIREPS when making local flights. The FSS can offer complete weather service, frequencies, airport information, navigational assistance and emergency assistance. Except for the callup, other communications can be conversational.

Some FSS operations are now only part-time. Do not try to stretch radio range. Use nearest available frequency. Know how to select the appropriate FSS frequency, how to use it correctly and when to use it. Some FSS operation is only part-time. The FAA is in the process of making most FSS operations via remote facilities. Oakland and Rancho will service most of Northern California as the smaller stations are phased out. Reference the AIM Chapter 4-92, 5-81, 70-50/58.

Flight Watch
Sitting very near the FSS radio specialists is the Flight Watch radio specialist. His duties extend from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. local times. This is a nationwide weather information service operating on 122.0. The first Flight Watch station was activated at Oakland about twenty years ago. Since this is the only frequency he may have up to eight remote locations. Oakland has one at Reno, Red Bluff, Oakland, Big Sur, Sacramento, Fresno, and Ferndale near Eureka. There are three HiWAS frequencies for the airlines. Any aircraft over 5000' should be able to contact Flight Watch.

Pilot Arrival Operations
If you are a passive pilot who lets ATC make all your arrival decisions you can just follow orders. This works best if you are quite familiar with the airport and its procedures. At unfamiliar fields you need to work out an arrival with ATC. The easiest, but less efficient way is to request to overfly the field and let them work you into the pattern. Passive radio operations usually require multiple transmissions involving questions and answers. One incompetent pilot with poor radios can tie up the system.

Every light aircraft pilot should be wearing a headset. He should know that microphones are noise canceling. The closer to the mouth the mike the less extraneous noise will intrude. As a pilot you will speak at a measured pace without punctuation. Make no pauses for periods, commas, or thinking. As a student you always let ATC know that you are a student as part of your full aircraft identification so that they can keep an eye on you. ATC communications are practically the same in similar situations. With experience you can recognize the 'canned' aspects and include them in your call-up. The more assertive pilot will take charge of the situation as suggested below. Do all your planning and thinking before you key the mike.

Several planning steps should precede the call-up to a tower-controlled airport. You should get the ATIS well away from the airport. This means you will know the direction of the preferred runway. You will know if a substantial crosswind is involved. You will listen and orient other traffic with reference to your arrival. You will plan your arrival so as to make your initial call-up at a selected reference point and altitude. Reference points are best when they are specific identifiable spot locations. Altitudes below 3000 feet AGL are safest when not at even thousands or five hundreds.

As a student you would be well advised to write your expected arrival out without any shortcuts. Have it so you can read it off. After doing this a few times the writing will no longer be required. Where multiple runways exist some variations are to be expected. With the planning taken care of, you take a deep breath and practice getting everything out in one smoothly paced flow. While you are practicing you will be listening to the radio for ATC references to both inbound and outbound traffic.

Ready begin:
"Podunk tower (Cessna 1234X)(reference point)(at altitude)(with ATIS)(arrival path)(will report) (looking for traffic)". You win if the tower says, "34X approved as requested."

Properly presented and arranged radio work by the pilot helps the controller sort out the factors of aircraft type, position altitude, intentions, and expected report. Making it easy for ATC lets them make it easy for you.

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