Contents

Improving the Flare
--The nosewheel fell off when you turned base.

Stalls
Instructor should as a preliminary tell the student that the stall is a critical part of the landing process. We slow an airplane to the stall to minimize the ground impact and speed. This is better for the airplane's future life. Preliminary to the stall the sounds of the aircraft will change. The controls will become less effective and responsive. The sounds in the cockpit change in pitch and are quieter.

As the aircraft slows, have the student move the controls to feel the reduced authority and effectiveness. By doing with without rudder the student can sense the yaw that occurs during uncoordinated flight. Bo doing this at different speeds the student can gradually become accustomed to the changes. Make slow shallow turns to acquaint the student with the sensitivity that develops at the slowest speeds.

The final slow speed is the area of the buffet. Have the student cycle several times into and out of the buffett before going for the break. Should the student misuse the rudder, the resulting wing drop should be corrected with rudder, not aileron. This is a very important introduction of rudder use. At a later time you can let the student try to raise the wing with aileron for the thrill of it.

The Last Thirty Seconds
If only we could go back and do the last thirty seconds of every landing over again. I have written about the flare as well as other aspects of the approach and landing before. Now I will try to touch on the myriad reasons no two landings can ever be the same. I might as well be talking about snowflakes.

Constant repetition at one airport in one pattern will not organize all the variables into a blue print fitting all other airports. With all the pilot controlled constants in balance, the uncontrollable variables will still make every landing a unique experience. The purpose of landing practice should, after pilot control of airspeed is standardized, be directed toward learning to adapt to and use the variables to make safe landings anywhere.

The following is only a partial listing of variables. Pages could be, and have been written about each variable. What follows is a partial analysis. Without regard to how they occur in the sequence or in importance we have pilot, airplane, surface and climatic variations of:
--airspeed,
--approach angles,
--aircraft attitudes,
--aircraft configuration,
--power settings,
--power changes,
--density altitudes,
--height of flare,
--smoothness of flares,
--ground effects both high and low,
--wing lengths,
--wing positions on aircraft,
--landing gears,
--wind velocities,
--wind variations,
-- wind angles,
--flap configurations,
--flare altitude,
--pilot anticipation,
--pilot reaction,
--pilot seating
--pilot perspective,
--control effect,
--timing,
--patience,
--runway alignment
--runway length
--runway width
--runway surface
--runway obstacles
--more.

During The pilot's ability to control ground effect depends on how he both anticipates and reacts to these other variables.

The closer to the ground the flare and the greater the airspeed the more pronounced will be ground effect in causing float and ballooning. Once again variables of density altitude, wing length, wing position on aircraft, get to have their say. An aircraft with a relatively short wing may fall right through ground effect at below specific airspeeds. (Piper Cherokee C )  The same aircraft with a relatively long wing will float ...if slightly high approach speed is used into the flare. Piper Archer II) The flare into ground effect in the early morning will need a completely different touch in the mid-afternoon due to changes in the air density of the ground effect. A combination of a short wing, a hot day, and a low airspeed makes a landing more like a crash. A long wing, a cool day, and a high airspeed will cause you to float till tomorrow.

The airspeed, flap configuration, and approach angle to the runway is one group of variables that affect the accuracy of the landing. A constant airspeed will not bring you down to the runway at a constant angle if the wind velocity varies. The wind velocity always varies on an approach. The proper approach airspeed only allows us to flare in ground effect to bring the sink rate to zero. The flare transfers the energy of descent into forward motion in ground effect. Too slow may reduce the efficiency of ground effect. Too fast and the improved efficiency of ground effect results in either a balloon or float. The problem of the pilot is to adapt all the variables to the existing ground effect so as to accomplish an acceptable landing.  Neither accuracy nor softness is a certainty for every landing.

As a student, you will never get a chance to do all the variations. You will be given the learning tools to perform basic landings safely. Only by continued exposure to the variables will you become proficient in landings. It is the variables that give students a sense of intimidation, uncertainty and lack of progress. Every landing will be different and only relatively good when compared to what is possible. Seek not perfect landings but safe landings. A major learning hurdle for all students is the common misconceptions as to what constitutes a good landing.

Pitch and Yaw Lesson
One of the ways an instructor can help a student recognize pitch attitude and yaw pictures out of the cockpit window is by lowering the tail while on the ground. It is important that student pilots know what the pitch and yaw of an airplane on takeoff and landing can be controlled and set by visual reference. The key lies in being aware of the needed attitude and being able to control attaining it. Knowing the objectives needed on the ground makes getting them in the air easier for the student. This is both a takeoff and landing lesson. The basic pitch attitude on landing and takeoff are the same. Cover the end of the runway with the nose of the airplane and you will be using the proper pitch attitude. Use your peripheral vision to each side of the nose to keep the aircraft straight.

Student is to sit in the cockpit with seat adjusted for flight. Hold yoke partially back as though in level flight. Student to look over level nose with wide view of horizon to each side. Instructor will slowly lower the tail to the ground. At the same time the student will, using only one or two fingers below the horn of the yoke, slowly initially but with a logarithmically increase in speed pull the yoke both back and up for its full travel.

The intent is to get the elevator full up at the same moment the tail touches the ground. During this process the student should be noting that the visual horizon remains stationary as the pitch axis rotates. A landing is an act of faith. You must believe that a good landing will result even though you can't see the runway.

This procedure should be repeated until the yoke movement and the tail lowering reach the end of their travel simultaneously. It should be noted that holding the yoke with a full grip will most likely limit the yoke travel. The geometry of the arm and yoke cause this. By using the finger tips and lifting you will find that the last few inches of yoke travel include an upward moment. Do this until you get it right.

Now the instructor should swing the tail to each side so the student can observe how the movement of the horizon can be used to detect yaw. Explain that any time the nose rises above the horizon an ever-increasing P-factor complex will pull the nose to the left. Increasing right pressure on the rudder is required as the nose rises. This counters the P-factor complex and aligns the nose with the flight direction. You do this in anticipation not in reaction.

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