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Terminology:
--Pipper: The dot between the 'wings' of the attitude indicator. (English) Originally the dot used in aiming aircraft guns in

Hood Training
The FAA integrated mix of VFR and IFR instruction is a violation of the very instructional precepts considered basic to flight instruction. The purpose of the IFR instruction to a VFR student was an emergency process. As such, it focused on the attitude indicator and the making of a 180- degree turn out of IFR conditions. The basis of this instruction was upon the inability of a VFR pilot to maintain control in IFR conditions for much over a minute.

The basic 1959 survival turn was performed by reference to the needle with any descent initiated by a slight reduction in power as by applying carburetor heat. The yoke was released and a quarter-needle turn initiated and stopped by rudder alone. Over the years this was changed into a coordinated attitude indicator shallow bank along with turn coordinator rate turn for one minute. Any time devoted to this detracted from the use of VFR references outside the cockpit.

I, along with others, have minimized hood time until giving a concentrated emphasis just prior to the practical test. In my VFR instruction emphasize a light smooth control touch, selected power settings, and attitudes referenced with the nose and horizon set by trim. The transition from such VFR flying to IFR instrument control is a seamless smooth one.

My students learn, early on, to index the throttle position by sound and confirm only with the tachometer. Sound is also indexed for selected speeds and configurations. The student proceeds from a known condition in VFR to an instrument condition directly related and confirmed by the instruments. In years past my students have usually commented on how seamless the VFR to IFR training has been.

There is no way that future flight instruction can permanently reconstruct the problems created by poor initial instruction. The importance of proper initial instruction has been proven many times. Poor coordination, trim techniques, attention to headings and altitudes will never be what they should be if not taught from the beginning.

Hood
The hood should be fitted prior to engine start. Note that the attitude indicator has both a wings level and a level index mark at its top. The 10, 20, and 30 degree bank marks have been pointed out during Dutch-rolls and banks. A plane will not turn if the wings are level. This means that whenever the heading indicator is fixed on a heading the plane is not turning and wings can be considered level. Knowing this will enable you to perform even stalls under the hood. When the attitude indicator is at level, heading will be constant. Confirm this with the heading indicator.
The turn coordinator has the ability to show both the direction of the turn and markings that index the 2 minute standard rate turn. The vertical speed indicator will either indicate false or excessive movement under abrupt control input and may have up to a 12 second lag. The altimeter also may lag. The accuracy of the instruments is proportional to the smoothness of any change. The use of sound indexes acquired from VFR flight will help clue you in on airspeeds and changes.

Standard Rate Turns
All banks under the hood are at standard rate. Standard rate turns requires two minutes to make a 360 degree circle. One minute for a 180 and 30 seconds for each 90 degrees. The standard rate turn for a given airspeed is indicated by the needle or by the turn coordinator. The turn coordinator is the only true indicator of whether the bank is left or right. (A necessary check during spins) The angle can be estimated by dividing the speed by ten and adding five. (Speed /10 + 5 = angle of bank) 85 knots airspeed divided by 10 is 8.5 + 5 = 13.5 angle of bank. Set the estimated angle on the AI and check with the turn coordinator. All climbs and descents are at one bar width on the attitude indicator. From low cruise both climb and descent at a given rate will closely correspond to RPM changes by 100's. A power reduction of 500 rpm gives 500 fpm descent.

Timed Turns
In VFR condition at level altitude cruise the standard rate bank is selected by using the turn coordinator. The degree of bank is NOTED on the attitude indicator. This angle of bank becomes the standard to be used. It is checked for accuracy by making successive timed turns of 90, 180, and 360 degrees. It takes 30 seconds to turn 90 degrees, one minute to turn 180 degrees and two minutes to turn 360 degrees. In a C-150 at cruise the angle will be about 12 degrees. After timed turns are introduced at cruise go to VFR slow flight and determine the angle of bank required on the turn coordinator for above timed turns. The angle will be close to 10 degrees.

Unusual Attitudes
Using Sensory Perception
A large part of flight instruction is based upon how the student perceives the instructor's demonstrations. The instructor, by example, is trying to get the student to replicate a behavior model. The complete original consists of many sub-assemblies of basic perceptions and skills. This reconstruction is made up of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic perceptions.
We begin with the visual sense of what happened. In basics we want this sense to be developed with out-of-the-cockpit vision. The student must then through repetition learn to see and recognize mentally what the eyes see. Visual memory can be recalled and even recreated. When the student can recreate a modeled procedure he has also replicated all the other perceptions and skills.

One of the most neglected areas of modeling perception is sound. Sound is a lead indicator of aircraft performance. The dominance of visual perceptions tends to make the student funnel in on the visual aspects of flying. However, sound, more often than not will lead visual indications. I make a point of emphasizing initial sounds, sound changes, constant sounds, and difference in sounds as they occur in procedures. The proper sequence of sounds in flying can be like music to the attuned.

The hardest of the senses to perceive is the kinesthetic. The near total dominance of the visual makes it override the other senses. However, when we remove the visual from the mix, the kinesthetic is just waiting there to take over. With practice we can learn to use the visual sense to verify or negate our kinesthetic perceptions. When, we can't, vertigo is waiting in the wings to take over the procedure.

The object is to return the plane to straight and level flight at a normal cruise airspeed as quickly as possible. The student is to close his eyes and put his head down or up. The instructor turns, dives, climbs, rolls and pitches the airplane in a designed effort to upset your semicircular canals. Some of the aircraft configuration can be changed as well.

While with his head down the student will feel every move greatly exaggerated, as if the aircraft is doing aerobatics. You are immediately placed in a situation of sensory conflict. Straight and level feels like it is climbing, diving or turning. Strange and unfamiliar sensations puzzle you land you begin to have doubt and uncertainty.

The student should level the wings first. Second LISTEN to the airspeed and then use the throttle as is appropriate. If slow add power; if fast reduce power until level cruise is attained.

Teaching Unusual Attitudes
Let the student get himself into the unusual attitude by having the student read a sectional in his lap while maintaining straight and level while reading. He should shield his eyes from any shadow effects. As the aircraft begins to deviate let it proceed for a few seconds before having the student use instruments to correct the situation. Discussion should reveal whether vertigo occurred.

I had occasion to ride in the Barany Chair, named after the Nobel Prize winning physician, the trip was so disorienting that I could not eat lunch. Not only did I lose my sense of direction, position and situational awareness, I lost what lunch I tried to eat. The sensory information from my inner ears had no visual references for support. The cilia in my inner ear interpreted a constant motion as no motion. Thus, it was proven to me that spatial disorientation could take place for anyone at any time.

Any quick turn of the head or change in vertical position can stir the inner ear fluids and cause you to fly into an unusual attitude. Once you have allowed yourself to get into an unusual attitude it is important that you believe only your instruments. The turn is the most common source of an unusual attitude. You are most likely to allow any bank to become too steep. The ear and body sensations of a steep turn are G-forces and the instinctive reaction is to pull back. This is contra-indicated. What you should do is first level the wings. Failure to level the wings means that you will soon enter a death spiral at an ever-increasing speed. If you feel such a situation coming on reduce power and dirty up the plane as much as possible with gear and flaps.

A loss of control at low speed is less likely to dismember the aircraft. In any event, level the wings by centering the turn coordinator and ailerons. Any excess speed will cause the nose come up by itself. The first sign of coming through level altitude is a change in airspeed. The nose rising will cause the airspeed to stop increasing. At that point it is time to relax backpressure. Continue to pull back and you will end up in a very steep climb.

A student can get into his own unusual attitude by having the student look down into the cockpit while getting specific information off a chart. After about 20 seconds of this have the student pick something off the floor before going to read and interpret the instruments. Senses are not very good indicators of what the airplane is doing unless confirmed with visual reference.

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